Back in school we learned about Aristotle’s rhetorical triangle. We kept repeating that it is made up of three elements: logos (logic), ethos (the speaker’s reputation) and pathos (emotions). The subject has been re-examined in so many ways that it has almost become a cliché. Yet it is worth revisiting and viewing it from a fresh perspective—one that offers a deeper appreciation of how crucial Aristotle’s concept really is.
The perspective I propose is this: instead of picturing a visual triangle, think of a three-legged stool. To sit on it comfortably, each of the three legs must be solid. If one leg is wobbly, we will sway and fall. If any leg is missing, the stool topples over. That, in essence, is the point Aristotle made centuries ago about good communication. A good speaker cannot rely only on rational arguments, or only on smooth talk that creates a good impression, or only on personal reputation while offering no value to the audience. A good speaker must take care of all three legs of the stool.
Logos – logic, reasoning and arguments
First, a speaker who wants to achieve their goals must ensure that their argumentation rests on sound logic. Significantly, the argumentation does not have to be true; it only needs to appear true. Yes, that is controversial, but classical rhetoric has no category called “truth,” which is why ethical debates around persuasion arise. In Aristotle’s triad, logos is the rational layer of the speech: quoting numbers and statistics, scientific studies, inferences, deduction, proof, references to reputable reports, cost-benefit or ROI calculations. These elements are indispensable in any presentation or extended statement—and in business presentations they are usually abundant.
The problem is that most business presentations rest on this single stool leg. The other two—pathos and ethos—are either absent or unstable.
Pathos – emotions
The second leg of the rhetorical stool is emotion (pathos). Hundreds of treatises and behavioral-economics studies have shown that we make decisions under the influence of emotion, not purely rational arguments. One anecdote: Sigmund Freud put a patient into hypnosis and instructed her that upon awakening she should walk to a parasol in the corner, open it and close it. After coming out of the trance, she did exactly that. Freud asked why, and she replied without hesitation: “To check the tension of the wires in the umbrella.”
Her answer was automatic and sincere. This prompted many researchers to study the phenomenon. Michael Gazzaniga, after numerous behavioral experiments, concluded: people are rationalizing creatures. They decide emotionally and then search for rational reasons to justify their choice.
That is a signpost for every speaker: if we do not give the audience emotion, they will not follow our call. The easiest way to introduce emotion is with a brief, topic-relevant story (like the umbrella example above), humor, metaphors and vivid comparisons, surprises, props—any device that triggers some feeling. Yes, any feeling: the worst presentation is one everyone forgets after a minute. As Professor John Medina warned in Brain Rules: the brain ignores anything boring.
Ethos – the speaker’s reputation
The third leg of the rhetorical stool is ethos, how the speaker is perceived. It is the hardest element of the triad to grasp—and to implement—because it does not hinge on last-minute preparation. It is the speaker’s entire, often years-long track record with audiences. Compare a CEO addressing employees with an intern giving a first company presentation: the CEO commands close attention, while few listeners will invest energy in the intern’s words because “he hasn’t achieved anything yet”—a colloquial summary of low ethos.
Exactly the same words, spoken by two different people, can evoke completely different reactions. We attach more weight to a colleague who has always been diligent, precise, helpful and impressively creative—yet remains humble—than to someone who repeatedly missed report deadlines, whose slides teem with typos, and whose work looks slapped together. A philanthropist who has spent years helping those in need enjoys one ethos; on the opposite pole is a politician convicted of fraud. The speaker’s perceived track record—their reputation—is critical to persuasive power.
We do have some influence over ethos, however. How to boost it during a presentation? Use credible sources and data. Keep slides orderly and neat. Speak briefly, to the point, politely, without hesitation and without filler sounds (“uhhmm…”). Use clear, simple language, maintain eye contact and, above all, show respect to the audience. They will repay you with even greater respect.
I first encountered the “rhetorical stool” idea in Simon Lancaster’s book Speechwriting: The Expert Guide. Incidentally, I met him recently—we both spoke at the Present to Succeed 2025 conference (yes, that is me burnishing my ethos).
Watching the best experts in the world prepare and perform live is inspiration beyond any monetary value. So I encourage you not only to practice communication that rests on the stool’s three sturdy legs, but also to find an authority in your professional niche. It could be someone like Aristotle—whom you will never meet but whose works you can study—or someone still alive and writing whom you might one day encounter and learn from directly. Common sense (a nod to logos based on deduction) says: whichever mentor you choose, it is bound to be an enlightening experience.
That is what I wholeheartedly wish for you (pathos).
Piotr Garlej
